Sky Wave or Ionospheric propagation

Sky Wave or Ionospheric propagation

The ionosphere is the upper portion of the atmosphere, which absorbs large quantities of radiant energy like ultra violet rays, cosmic rays etc., from the sun, becoming heated and ionised. This ionised region contains free electrons, positive and negative ions.

Radio waves in the short wave band, radiated from an antenna at large angles with ground, travel through the atmosphere and encounters the ionised region in the upper atmosphere, Under favourable circumstances, the radiowaves get bent downwards due to refraction from the different parts of the ionised region and again reach the earth at a fer distant point. Such a radio wave is called the sky wave and such a propagation of radio wave is known as sky wave propagation or ionospheric propagation. Long distance radio communication is thus possible through the sky wave propagation.

Nuclear fusion

Nuclear fusion

Nuclear fusion is a process in which two or more lighter nuclei combine to form a heavier nucleus. the mass of the product is always less than the sum of masses of the individual lighter nuclei. The difference in mass is converted into energy. The fusion process can be carried out only at a extremely high temperature of the ode of 10⁷ K because, only at these very high temperatures the nuclei are able to overcome their mutual repulsion. Therefore before fusion, the lighter nuclei must have their temperature raised by several million degrees. The nuclear fusion reactions are known as thermo-nuclear reactions.

Colours of thin films

Colours of thin films

Everyone is familiar with the brilliant colours exhibited by a thin oil film spread on the surface of water and also by a soap bubble. These colours are due to interference between light waves reflected from the top and bottom surfaces of thin filims. When white light is incident on a thin film, the film appers coloured and the colour depends upon the thickness of the film and also the angle of incidence of the light.